Overview
Andalucia is the generic term given to the southern region of Spain, spanning the peninsula from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean and comprising the modern provinces of Almeria, Granada, Malaga, Jaen, Cordoba, Sevilla, Cadiz and Huelva. Although geographically varied, ranging from the semi-desert of Almeria to the fertile plains near Seville, it possesses a cultural cohesion and a proud identity with a unique heritage.
The Romans called the region Baetica after the river Betis (modern Guadalquivir). From 206 BC onward major Roman cities developed, including Cordubum, Hispalis, and Italica, birthplace of Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The Guadalquivir basin housed vast estates known as latifundia, producing grain, wine, and olives — a term still used today.
After the collapse of Roman power in the 5th century, the Vandals briefly occupied the region before being pushed out by the Visigoths. Their name survives in “V-andal-ucia.” Visigothic rule was weak and civil conflict opened the door to Arab expansion: in 711 forces crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, adding Iberia to the world of Islam.
From 711 to 1492 Andalucia — initially as a whole and later in part — belonged to a non-European, non-Christian civilisation, giving the region its enduring distinctive character.
The Muslim Period
Muslim Andalucia became one of the most brilliant periods in Spanish history. Although Muslim armies reached as far north as Asturias, the heart of Islamic culture was always “Al-Andalus,” centred in the south. By 755 the Ummayad prince Abd al-Rahman I declared the region independent, founding the Kingdom of Cordoba.
The Cordoban Caliphate
From 755 to 1031, Muslim Spain — with Cordoba as its capital — rivalled Charlemagne’s Frankish kingdom and was arguably the most civilised state in Western Europe. Contemporary sources describe 471 mosques, 500,000 inhabitants, and a world-renowned university. In 929, under Abd al-Rahman III, Cordoba was raised to Caliphate status equal to Baghdad.
The Great Mosque (La Mezquita), begun in 785, became the second largest in the Islamic world after Mecca. Its arches include reused Roman and even one Egyptian column, and its design likely drew from Syrian-Greek craftsmen who accompanied Abd al-Rahman.
Islamic art avoided human representation, producing instead intricate geometric designs and calligraphic ornamentation (as seen in the Mezquita and the Alhambra). Science flourished: Arabs built upon Ptolemy and Euclid, developed algebra, and advanced astronomy, alchemy, chemistry, and medicine. The first spectacles were invented here by Al-Ghafaqi in the 11th century (origin of the Spanish word gafas).
Artisans excelled in filigree silverwork, leather, and public lamps that created the effect of early street lighting.
Agriculture
Agriculture was the backbone of Andalucian prosperity. In addition to Roman crops of wheat and olives, Muslims introduced oranges, lemons, dates, persimmons, pomegranates, cotton, rice, and sugar cane. Terracing techniques prevented soil erosion in dry regions. Irrigation systems, especially around Granada, made formerly barren land productive.
Of the thousands of Arabic-derived words in Spanish, many relate to farming. Gardens became art forms symbolising paradise — as seen in the water gardens of the Generalife — and the region’s ceramics reflect the blues and greens of this tradition.
Fragmentation and Berber Rule
After the death of Abd al-Rahman III, the Caliphate weakened. In 1031 it fragmented into 26 small Taifa kingdoms. The Christian capture of Toledo in 1085 prompted an intervention by Berber dynasties (Almoravids, then Almohads) who absorbed Muslim Spain into Morocco by 1110. These puritanical regimes destroyed buildings deemed blasphemous (including Medina al-Azahara) and contributed little to Andalucian culture aside from a few linguistic remnants.
Yet before the 13th-century Christian reconquests, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars interacted extensively. Greek works were translated via Arabic and Hebrew into Latin, igniting Europe’s later Renaissance.
The Christian Reconquest
The turning point came in 1212 at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Fernando III captured Cordoba in 1236 and Sevilla in 1248.
Granada — The Last Muslim Kingdom
The mountainous region of eastern Andalucia formed the Kingdom of Granada, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty from 1275. Refugees from Christian-ruled lands — including Jews — enriched Granada with skills in agriculture and architecture. The fertile vega beneath the city and abundant mountain water supported prosperity.
The Alhambra
The Alhambra (“Red Palace”), begun in the late 14th century, is renowned for its intricate interior decoration, filigree screens, rejas, and stucco stalactite vaulting. Its geometric motifs, koranic inscriptions, and subtle colours contrast with its deliberately plain exterior.
Washington Irving’s 19th-century Tales of the Alhambra revived European fascination with the site. Sadly, vandalism occurred during the French occupation (1810–1814), though much remains well preserved today.
The Fall of Granada (1492)
Political instability in Granada, combined with the unification of Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabel (1469), led to war in 1482. After losing Malaga in 1487 and facing internal conflict, Granada surrendered on January 2, 1492. Thus ended nearly 800 years of Muslim rule in Iberia. That same year Columbus received final approval for his voyage from the Catholic Monarchs — in the Alhambra.
Andalucia Since 1492
After the Reconquest, Andalucia declined as political power shifted north. The expulsion of the Moriscos (1568–1569) removed vital agricultural expertise. Later upheavals, including the Napoleonic wars and 19th-century constitutional struggles, deepened poverty.
Despite being romanticised by foreign writers (Byron, Bizet, Irving), the region remained poor, leading to anarchist movements, peasant uprisings, and fierce land-reform conflicts during the 1930s. Much of the Spanish Civil War’s early fighting occurred here.
Post-Franco Andalucia still struggles with unemployment and uneven economic development, though tourism and agriculture have grown. Cultural prestige remains high due to festivals (e.g., Granada Music and Dance Festival) and Seville’s 1992 Expo.
Summary Timeline
- Phoenicians in Cadiz – c. 1000 BC
- Greek colonies – c. 700 BC
- Punic control – 500–200 BC
- Roman rule – 200 BC–450 AD
- Vandal – 450–500 AD
- Visigothic – 500–711 AD
- Arab/Berber/Moorish – 711–1211
- Moorish Granada – 1275–1492
Cordoba
Once the most splendid city of Moorish Spain, Cordoba rivalled Cairo and Baghdad. Today it has around 240,000 inhabitants and remains a major agricultural centre surrounded by fertile orchards.
History
Founded on the Guadalquivir, Cordoba prospered on olive cultivation. The Romans called it Corduba, birthplace of philosophers Seneca and Lucan. A brutal battle here saw Caesar defeat Pompey’s forces, leaving 22,000 dead.
Cordoba Under the Moors
Occupied in 711, Cordoba became the capital of Al-Andalus, reaching a population of nearly a million by the 10th century. It boasted 300 mosques, 26,000 buildings, a university, and a vast library. Scholars such as Averroes and Maimonides worked here.
Decline
Internal disputes, Berber dominance, and Christian advances weakened the city. After the Christian victory at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), Cordoba fell to Ferdinand III in 1236.
The Mezquita
The Great Mosque, begun in 785, stands on the site of a former Roman temple and Visigothic church. Christians and Muslims shared the building until 748; afterward, the Moors purchased full rights and expanded it extensively.
The exterior resembles a fortress, but the Patio de los Naranjos hints at its former elegance. Inside, 850 mismatched Roman columns support red-and-white arches, onyx and jasper details, and carved cedar ceilings. The mihrab — shrine for the Koran — features dazzling mosaic work gifted by the Byzantine emperor.
The Cathedral
After the Reconquest, the building became a cathedral. Charles V authorised a Baroque chapel in the centre, causing controversy for disrupting the harmony of the original design.
Surroundings
Narrow streets, whitewashed houses, wrought-iron balconies, and flower-filled patios surround the Mezquita. Nearby is a small synagogue associated with Maimonides.