Overview
The Principality of Wales is considered to be one of the four constituent parts of the United Kingdom, but has been ruled as one with England since 1283. The eldest male child of the ruling British house holds sovereignty over Wales as a hereditary right; Prince Charles is of course the current holder of this title, though Prince William will immediately take it over on Charles’ accession to the throne. The Welsh are very proud of their nationality, and it is as well to point out the difference between English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish, and the all-encompassing term “British”. The distinction may not be all together clear to many groups, but the political unity of the “Home Countries” in no way detracts from their separate cultural identities.
The history of Wales
The history of Wales stretches back to the days before the Roman invasion. At that time Britain was inhabited by Celts, a resourceful and artistic people, who had been migrating across continental Europe from east to west for many hundreds of years. They arrived in the British Isles between 1000-500 BC, and quickly inter-bred with the local population, the ancient British, taking over many of their religious sites. The Romans did not distinguish between the various racial elements but it was after the Anglo-Saxon invasion in 490 AD, that these Romano-British were pushed into the furthest corners of the island; some to Cornwall although the majority found better protection in the mountains of Wales. “Wales” and “Welsh” are derived from the Anglo-Saxon word wealas, meaning foreigner. The Welsh, who retained their ancient Celtic tongue, henceforth became strangers in their own land, though their language remained pure and separate, in contrast to English which expanded and altered with the coming of the Angles, the Vikings and the Normans. As a result there is little or no similarity between English and Welsh. One very simple example of this can be seen in the Welsh word for Wales – Cymru – that clearly has nothing to do with the English version. Irish Gaelic and the Breton language spoken in Brittany belong to the same family, however, and contain many common words and phrases.
The so-called Dark Ages
The so-called Dark Ages, which extended from the departure of the Romans to the end of the millennium (1000 AD), were in fact a period of some significance to the Welsh. Many of the myths and legends told beside winter fires date back to this era, when the Welsh dragon, now to be found on the national flag (red, white and green tricolour), ruled the country’s forests and mountains. The medieval love-story of Tristan and Isolde retold by poets in many languages and the theme of one of Wagner’s operas, links up the Celtic regions of Wales, Ireland and Cornwall. But most famous of all is the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The story tells of a boy who, aided by Merlin the Magician, discovers magical strength to become King of Britain. In front of Westminster Abbey, a stone appears with a huge sword embedded in it. A legend written underneath prophecies that whoever succeeds in drawing the sword from the stone will become King. All the strongest Knights in the realm try and fail, until young Arthur steps up to perform the feat with ease. He is duly crowned and the lady of the lake presents him with a
charmed sword, known as Excalibur, which makes him invincible in battle.
He then gathers all the bravest and proudest knights on the island to his mythical castle of Camelot, and there establishes the Round Table. Sir Launcelot, Sir Percival ‘ Sir Galahad, and other members of this select band set off on quests to right wrongs, rescue maidens in distress, and ultimately to find the Holy Grail, blessed by Jesus Christ on the night of the Last Supper. Many historians have claimed that Camelot was in fact Tintagel Castle in Cornwall, others that Arthur ruled from Winchester and that he lies buried at Glastonbury in Somerset, but the most beguiling version of the tale suggests that he lies sleeping with his knights in a Welsh Cave and will awake one day to save Britain in a time of great peril. What he will do to stop an intercontinental ballistic missile remains to be seen, but the thought is nonetheless comforting for the Welsh.
Returning to more concrete history
The most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercia bordered the “land of the foreigners” or Wales and in the reign of OFFA (757-96), a great earth-work, known as Offa’s Dyke, was built to separate the two countries. Forts were also positioned on the Severn and Mersey rivers to strengthen the defences of what became known as the Welsh Marches (modern Shropshire, Hereford and Worcestershire). Although originally influenced by missionaries from Ireland, which had been Christian since the C5, the Welsh were cut off from the religious influence of Rome by the English, and consequently developed their own brand of Christianity. Important religious centres were established at Bangor, St Asaph’s, and St David’s, which is still Britain’s smallest cathedral city. Wales also escaped Viking raids and settlement, except in the very southwest, where they planted a colony at Haverford (ford=fjord). This part of Britain was therefore able to develop its own culture in near isolation so that, by the time of the Norman Conquest, it had become a power in its own right. The Welsh were ruled by local chiefs, the most powerful of which were the Princes of Powys in Mid-Wales.
The Norman French and Edward I
The Norman French were more aggressive than the Anglo-Saxons, and within four years of landing at Hastings, they were harassing the Welsh and soon penetrated the coastal lands as far as Pembrokeshire. This region was known for a long time as “Little England beyond Wales”, and the Welsh language never returned there. William, the Conqueror stopped short of invading the north, however, and established a buffer state along the border. This was the County Palatine of Chester and Flint, which he put under the control of his nephew, Hugh Lupus.
For a while the Welsh remained firmly entrenched in their northern mountain stronghold, and the independence of the kingdom of the Red Dragon was officially recognised by the English at the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267. But, with the accession of Edward I to the English throne a few years later, Wales was brought finally under English rule.
Using Shrewsbury as first base, Edward set about the business of conquest in earnest in 1277, and followed the Norman policy of building castles to secure the territory he had seized. Flint was the first of these fortifications (1277) and the others stretch right around the north coast of Wales at strategic points as far as Harlech, growing ever larger. Rhuddlan Castle succeeded Flint, and there Edward issued his famous proclamation, that thenceforth Wales was to be, governed by the English crown. Conway was next in the chain, so vast that the modern town is still partly within its outer walls. It commands the estuary of the river Conwy, along whose banks ran a supply route to the Welsh forces gathered in Snowdonia.
Caernarfon is today the most famous; as it was from the battlements that Edward presented the Welsh with his new-born son, uttering the words “Here is Your Prince”. Since 1911 the male heir to the throne has been invested in the courtyard at Caernarfon with the title of Prince of Wales upon his 21st birthday. He also adopts an unusual crest and motto, acquired by the first Prince of Wales in the C13. At the Battle of Crecy, the English armies won a famous victory over the French, who on this fateful occasion were supported by blind King John of Bohemia, a redoubtable plumed warrior, whose lack of eyesight did not prevent him from pursuing vigorous campaigns across Europe with his small band of Czech Knights. He met his end at the hands of the English bowmen, and the Black Prince picked up his three plumed helmet, with the words ich dien (I serve), and this has been the motto and emblem of the Prince of Wales ever since. Prince Charles was invested by his mother in a televised outdoor ceremony at Caernarfon in 1969. The occasion was commemorated by a special stamp issue, and prompted the Prince to take a crash course in Welsh, so he could celebrate his new title with a speech in the native language. Caernarfon remains the most impressive of Edward’s castles with its distinctive octagonal structure, though the most innovative was probably Beaumaris on the island of Anglesey, the first moated fortress in Britain.
Welsh independence and later history
Welsh independence finally came to an end in 1282 with the death of Llewellyn ein Llyw Olaf, “Llewellyn our last prince”. First his son was executed and then he himself died a fugitive in the mountains of Snowdonia. However, Welsh ancestry and heritage was to play an important part in the life of Henry V, one of England’s most famous kings. He was born in Monmouth and according to Shakespeare, his lethal long-bowmen at the battle of Agincourt wore “leeks in their Monmouth caps”. More significant still, was the rise to power of the family of Owen Tudor from Anglesey. His descendant Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, was to defeat Richard III at Bosworth in 1485 and declare a new Welsh sprung dynasty; The Tudors. (Several of the most important members of the family, including Henry VIII, his sickly elder brother Arthur, and Elizabeth I were redheads, suggesting Celtic blood). So it was that the two countries were drawn into a single political unit with English the language of law and government and of the upper classes.
Medieval prosperity and wool trade
Throughout the Middle Ages Wales had been prosperous, thanks to its favourable sheep rearing terrain, which made it an important centre for the lucrative wool trade. The English crown saw this as an important source of revenue, and in 1353 Edward III declared the “Staple”, an official state monopoly which was to last until the C18 (from this is derived the modern expression staple, as in “staple diet”). Wales still provides much of Britain’s wool. A certain percentage of the sheep population also finishes up every year on Sunday dinner tables as Welsh roast lamb.
Culture and language
Conquest by the English did not result in the end of a distinct Welsh culture; indeed, it may be said to have reinforced many ancient traditions. Welsh still remained the only tongue of all but a few people in the principality, until after the coming of the Industrial Revolution, whilst the twin strands of Celtic mysticism and the famous Welsh ear for music and song are combined in the National Eistedfodd, originally established at Carmarthen in 1450. The Bardic Circle or Gorsedd, ancient guardians of the Welsh culture and language, still meets once a year. The Eisteddfod continues a tradition of competition in music and poetry keeping alive the ancient Celtic role of the bard. On a more popular level Wales is still famous for its male voice choirs, a proud heritage sponsored by the many non-conformist chapels scattered throughout the valleys and mountains. Even the crowd at Cardiff Arms Park singing “Land of my Fathers” before a rugby international, must surely be the most tuneful and harmonious sporting audience in the world.
Civil War and castles
Wales’ many castles saw plenty of action during the Civil War. Charles 1, defeated for the last time at Rowton Heath, near Chester, retreated into Wales with the remnants of his forces. On the approach of the Parliamentary army, the Royalists shut themselves up in Conway castle, which was besieged for three months before its surrender. Likewise Rhuddlan, Caernarfon, Beaumaris, Denbigh and Ruthin were each in turn held by the King and then taken by Parliament. All still stand today, in varying states of repair. But in South Wales Carmarthen castle was totally destroyed, while Caerphilly, once second only to Windsor in size, was “slighted” (i.e its towers were filled with gunpowder and exploded, thus rendering the fort useless for defence. This technique was used in many castles, including Denbigh and Ruthin (built 1282 and 1281), to ensure that no Royalist Counter-Revolution could be mounted from Wales. The verb “to slight” has since passed into the English language as a metaphor for criticise.
18th century and foreign threats
In the C18 famous Welshmen included Beau Nash, who was responsible for many of the finest buildings at Bath, and Richard Steele, founder of the “Spectator”. The last attempt by a foreign power to invade Britain occurred in the Revolutionary wars with France when a French frigate appeared off Fishguard. The commander was on the point of landing a party when the crew spotted “Redcoats!” Thinking that English soldiers awaited them, they withdrew, but these were in fact local women clad in their traditional garb. Costumed dolls dressed in this manner can still be bought in many Welsh souvenir shops, sporting long red skirts, with white aprons, lace collars and black conical hats.
Industrial Revolution
During the Industrial Revolution South Wales became a major commercial centre. The raw materials that fuelled this apocalyptic change, particularly coal, were to be found in abundance in the Welsh valleys, whilst Swansea and Cardiff offered excellent port facilities. Speculators from all over Europe came to settle here, and many fortunes were made. The slate mines of the north were also important contributors to the national economy as virtually every terraced house built in the C19 had a slate roof from Welsh quarries. With the newly arrived machines and their instructing mechanics, the’ English language came to the principality for good. It replaced Welsh almost completely in the industrial centres, and by the end of the century, two-thirds of the population was bilingual. The chapels and hymnbooks of the non-conformist church provided ‘one last refuge for the language, but otherwise the retreat was general.
Patagonia settlement
One group of people fled the country entirely to keep their language and customs alive. In 1865 a small party led by Michael Jones set up a Welsh-speaking settlement in Patagonia. This project was sponsored by the Argentine government to encourage immigration by minority, non-Hispanic groups. Place names such as Trelew and Puerto Madryn mark what became a moderately prosperous community.
Language in the 20th century
In rural Wales, the twentieth century revolution in farming methods has driven to the cities many young people who might have been expected to keep the language alive. At the most recent census there were only 527,600 Welsh speakers, half the number there were at the turn of the century. Only one percent of the population remains monolingual Welsh. In recent decades, the language has regained some ground, in status if not in number of speakers. It is a medium for instruction in primary schools, and theoretically holds equal status in the administration of law and government. BBC Wales also broadcasts in Welsh at certain times of day on both radio and television.
Famous Welsh politicians
Famous political Welshmen in this century include Lloyd George, whose career started in radical Liberalism and ended with the scandal of the sale of peerages (he was also responsible for cutting the links between the Church of England and the nonconformist chapels, so beloved of the Welsh); Aneurin Bevan, left wing Labourite and founder of the NHS, and the former leader of the Labour Party, Neil Kinnock.
Modern Wales and tourism
Modern day Wales relies heavily on tourism as a source of income. Emphasis is moving away from the industrial towns and valleys of the south to the unspoilt mountains of Snowdonia National Park and the Brecon Beacons. Communications here are restricted by the difficult terrain, and this gives Wales a slower, sleepier atmosphere. A strong sense of community has kept the Welsh going through difficult times, and ironically this attracts an influx of temporary residents, who have bought holiday cottages in Wales. They are often criticised for destroying the very communities they come to enjoy, by bringing everything with them. For a while, there was a spate of arson attacks on these places by hostile locals, which prompted the coining of a new slogan, inspired by one of
Wales most famous products: “Come home to a real fire. Buy a cottage in Wales”
Patriotism and culture
The Welsh remain very patriotic, and rival the Scots and Irish in their enthusiasm for national symbols. St David’s Day sees many closet Welshmen sporting rather unusual buttonholes and hat decorations in the shape of leeks and daffodils. Music, as mentioned above, is a powerful unifying force in the principality, with strong religious overtones, though many would say that the true religion in Wales is Rugby Football. Gareth Edwards and J.P.R. Williams have stirred the hearts of many Welshmen with their spectacular and skilful play, whilst traffic wardens still apologize profusely for almost giving Barry John a parking ticket, as they remember his deft feints and miraculous drop goals, which brought Wales’ the Home International Championship time after time.
Dylan Thomas
Another point on which most Welshmen agree is that Dylan Thomas is the finest poet ever to come out of Wales. “Under Milk Wood” is probably his most famous work, and it catches with great sensitivity the rhythms of Welsh speech. The plot resembles a fairly dramatic episode of the Archers, and is usually presented in similar “radio-broadcast” style, but the characters speak with a fluency and poetry the BBC authors never match. Armed with a copy of this (or his collected poems) and your best Welsh accent, you could easily while away the hours you will spend passing through the splendid scenery of North and Mid-Wales.
Anglesey
Anglesey is an island off the north west coast of Wales that was first mentioned in Suetonius histories of the Roman conquest of Britain. As “Mona” it was famed as the centre of the Druid cult, which was quickly wiped out by the invaders. After this it was used principally as a granary. Its present name implies that the Angles did make it as far as here.
A colourful figure from the island’s past was the Marquis of Anglesey. He was in command of the cavalry at Waterloo and was riding next to the Duke of Wellington when a cannon ball took off his leg. He turned to the Iron Duke and exclaimed, “By God, I’ve lost my leg.” The Duke reputedly kept studying the field of battle but eventually turned his head and said, “By God, have you?” His leg even has its own epitaph:
Here lies the Marquis of Anglesey’s leg
Pray for the rest of his body, I beg.
A statue of the brave peer can be seen from the Britannia Bridge (crossing over to Anglesey) in front of his family home Plas Newydd. George IV was once a visitor here. On his way to Ireland, via the port at Holyhead he is reported to have arrived dead drunk on the other side of the Irish channel, a state of affairs not too unusual for the dissolute monarch. Just inside Anglesey is the village with the longest Welsh name (60 letters in all). This links the Welsh language with German, as nouns are frequently stuck together to form lengthy compounds, particularly in the case of place names.