Key Dates:
- c. 5500 BC – Earliest settlements
- 210 – Romans arrive in Western Iberia
- 5th C AD – Barbaric tribes invade
- 711 – Moorish invasion
- 868 – Portucalae returns to Christian rule
- 1139 – Capital established at Coimbra
- Mid-13th C – Modern borders fixed
- 1279-1325 – Life of King Dinis, “The Farmer”
- 1386 – Treaty of Windsor
- 1394-1460 – Life of Henry the Navigator
- 1540 – First autos-da-fé in Lisbon
- 1588 – The Armada
- 1755 – The earthquake
- 1801-1814 – The Peninsular war
- 1910 – Republican revolution
- 1932 – Salazar becomes prime minister
- 1974 – MFA military coup
- 1986 – Portugal joins EC
Overview
Portugal is one of the smallest countries in Europe, measuring a mere 92,400 square kilometres. Even so, it has an enviable 800km of coastline bordering the Atlantic ocean. The westernmost point of continental Europe is actually at Cabo da Roca, only 30km from Lisbon. Portugal has about 10 million inhabitants, 2 million of whom live in the capital. And, because of poor job prospects, there are another estimated 3 million Portuguese living abroad.
Portugal is made up of 11 administrative provinces, although, for the purposes of tourism, the country is split into five different tourism regions: Porto and North Portugal, Beiras, Lisboa, Alentejo and the Algarve.
Over the last 2000 years, Portugal has seen its fair share of invasions: the Romans arrived in Western Iberia in 210 BC; in the 5th century, Vandals and Visigoths swept through; and the Arabs arrived in 711. The country has existed in its present form since 1179, although the next few hundred years would see Portugal struggling to keep hold of its territory. Several times they found themselves under attack from their closest neighbour, Spain. It is largely thanks to Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) that Portugal became one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Western world. The age of discovery saw the rise of great Portuguese explorers. But the reign of Sebastião (1557-1578) signalled Portugal’s downfall, and the rule of the Spanish kings (1580-1640) was to seal Portugal’s fate for a long time. In 1801, Portugal (Lisbon) was invaded for the last time. Napoleon’s forces swept into the city and so began the Peninsular War that lasted until 1811.
The 20th century proved to be no easier for the Portuguese. They lost the majority of their colonies in the late 1800’s and were plagued by bad government and a lack of stability at the turn of the century. A military dictatorship was set up in 1932 and lasted until 1974. Nevertheless, Portugal has wasted no time in catching up with her European neighbours. In 1986, Portugal became a member of the European Community (as it was then), giving it the opportunity to promote national commercial interests. Whilst Portugal’s tourism is mainly concentrated in the southernmost region, the Algarve, Lisbon has seen a substantial growth in the number of visitors over the last decade.
History – Origins
Evidence suggests that there have been settlements in Portugal since 5500 BC. It is most likely that people originally came over to exploit the abundant mineral deposits, particularly copper and tin. The River Sado was mainly navigable back then and provided direct access to the Alentejo region. Nowadays remains can still be seen of the Castro (hilltop fortress) culture that lived here.
Further source
• A concise history of Portugal, David Birmingham
• Prince Henry the Navigator, John Ure
• They went to Portugal, Rose Macaulay
• The Portuguese, Marion Kaplan
• Philip II (Seminar Studies In History), Geoffrey Woodward
• Portugal, A Companion History, José Hermano Saraiva
• Lonely Planet Portugal
Web sites
• www.Portugal.org/tourism
• www.aph.rcts.pt/pt_history.html (Portuguese History)
Pax Romana?
The Roman legions arrived in Iberia in 218 BC and entered Southern Portuguese territory eight years later. For the first 100 years or so their presence in Portugal proved to be more a period of integration than invasion. The natives, tribes of Celtiberians, were allowed to keep their customs, languages, regional laws and even their ancient Gods.
However, resistance was mounting in the area between the rivers Tejo and Douro, home to the Lusitani, a Celtic warrior tribe. Decades of resistance against the Roman legions ended with the death of their leader, Viriatus. There are several stories of how Viriatus met his death: some say he was killed in battle; others that three men who had been bribed by Roman soldiers murdered him in his bed. Either way his death in 139 BC secured his position as Portugal’s first national hero.
A capital was established at Olisipo (Lisbon) in 60 BC and important colonies were founded the length and breadth of Portugal. Portugal was divided into different provinces: Lusitania, the name given to land below the River Douro; Baetica (Andalucia and extreme southern Portugal); and Gallaecia, the Minho region and present-day Galicia. These provinces formed part of Hispania Ulterior. Portugal was experiencing its first taste of Pax Romana. The Romans placed great value on agriculture and set about creating proper irrigation systems to cultivate crops of grain, olives and vines. They introduced the system of latifundios whereby land was divided into parcels (the farming estates are still divided in the same way in the Alentejo region). Roads and bridges were built throughout the region and many of these can still be seen today.
The 5th century saw a succession of invasions from various Barbaric tribes: Vandals, Alans, Suevi and Visigoths. The Suevi were a Germanic tribe who settled in the area between the Minho and Duero, having already conquered Galicia in the far north. They ruled from both Braga and Portucale (Porto) until they were defeated by the Visigoths in the 6th century. The Suebi and Visigoth invasions were both important in that they put an end to Roman domination and promoted Christianity. Very few remains of their settlements have been uncovered, however, suggesting that for the most part they inhabited the Spanish side of the peninsula.
The Moors and reconquest
The Moors landed in Iberia in 711 and managed to conquer virtually the entire peninsula in about 5 years. The Minho region in the far north was only taken temporarily as Christian resistance proved strong. The Arabs were, in many ways, content to move south. They did not like the rainy climate, because it led to crop failure.
The southern part of Portugal enjoyed about five centuries of productivity and religious tolerance. The Mozarabs (Christians living under Arab rule) were taught new irrigation methods and given new crops to try out. Commerce and industry flourished. The Moorish culture also left its imprint on the language, in particular words relating to agriculture and architecture, for example: albufeira (reservoir) and arroz (rice).
The Christians began their reconquest in 718 when they defeated the Moors at Covadonga, Asturias. The next fifty years saw the further reconquest of a quarter of Iberia. The kingdom of Asturias-León grew and absorbed Castille, Aragon and Galicia. In 868 Portucalae, a province that included the city of Porto, was also brought under Christian rule and it became a buffer zone between the Christians and Arabs for the next two hundred years. In order to aid its defence, it was made a province of León and was governed by counts, vassals of the Leonese king. By the 10th century, Portucalae had expanded northwards to the river Lima, eastwards to Beira Alta and south to the Douro.
In 1096, Alfonso VI, King of León, gave the province of Portucalae and Coimbra as dowry, when his illegitimate daughter, Teresa, married Henry, brother of the Duke of Burgundy (the agreement was still that Henry would act as a vassal to King Alfonso).
When Alfonso died, ownership of the provinces was disputed and civil war broke out between the barons from Aragon, Galicia and Castilla who all claimed the crown was rightfully theirs.
On Henry’s death, his wife Teresa assumed the title of queen. Her thirst for power led her to marry a Galician nobleman – an act that would prove to be her downfall. Portucalae had enjoyed a certain amount of independence and had even been autonomous for a while during the 11th century. The nobility, therefore, saw this marriage as a direct threat to their regional independence, and feared being ruled by a Gallego.
When Alfonso VII was proclaimed king, Teresa refused to honour him. Her son Afonso Henriques rebelled against her and led an army of leading nobles into battle. The two sides met near the castle of Guimaraes in 1128. Teresa’s followers were quickly defeated and Alfonso exiled his mother to Galicia, where she died.
The creation of Portugal
wanted to gain independence from León and thereby create a kingdom of which he would be king. He invaded Galicia and defeated the nobility at the Battle of Cerneja. He made peace with Alfonso VII who recognised him as the King of Portucalae. The capital was established at Coimbra in 1139.
Afonso is said to have reconquered more territory from the Muslims than any other Christian king in Iberia. He took Lisbon and a great part of the Alentejo region, and it was because of his vigorous campaigns against the infidel that he was finally recognised by the Pope as King of Portugal in 1179. By the mid 13th century, the Christians had retaken the area now known as Portugal and the country’s borders have seen little change up to the present day.
King Dinis, “The Farmer”
Portugal flourished in the 13th century, largely thanks to King Dinis (1279-1325). It was under Dinis that the first Cortes was convened. It allowed representatives from town and country to vote alongside clergy and nobility, and gained him popularity as a monarch. He was given the nickname “O Lavrador” (The Farmer). Through his policies for agricultural development, great pine forests were planted and marshland was reclaimed. The country prospered under him, and many towns and villages sprang up as a result.
Dinis promoted Portuguese as the national language by insisting that all written documents be in the vernacular. He also founded an academic institution in 1290, which was later transferred to Coimbra, where it became Portugal’s most prestigious university. In 1308, he signed a pact of friendship with England, an alliance that would prove essential over the following centuries.
The relative stability enjoyed by the Portuguese was not to last, however. Within 60 years, Portugal was plunged into war with the neighbouring kingdom of Castille over rival claims to the throne. In 1383, Fernando I died leaving only a daughter, Beatriz, as heir. She was married to Juan I of Castille leading people to worry that Juan might usurp the crown and thereby end Portugal’s independence. Their marriage writ stated that she would inherit the crown only when she produced an heir. In the meantime, her mother Leonor Teles (another Castilian) would be regent.
A resistance movement emerged, led by Dom Joáo, illegitimate son of Fernando’s father Pedro I, and Master of the Order of Avis. In December 1383, Joáo attacked the palace and killed Fernando’s chancellor. Leonor turned to Juan of Castille for help, and his armies invaded Portugal in 1384. The story goes that Joáo prayed to the Virgin Mary for victory, promising that he would build a magnificent abbey as thanks for her aid. Juan’s forces were defeated and plans were drawn up for the construction of the monastery at Batalha.
In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor, a friendship pact, with Richard II of England. Although it has been modified several times, it is still in effect, making it one of the longest alliances between two sovereign countries. To cement the alliance, Joáo married the Duke of Lancaster’s youngest daughter, Philippa. Dona Filippa introduced English formal modes of behaviour to the court and promoted English commercial interests. She also took great pains to ensure that her five children were well educated.
The Treaty of Tordesillas
Christopher Columbus was living in Lisbon when he was working on his theories on how to reach the Indies. He presented his ideas to the court but was refused patronage. It was only then that he approached the Catholic King Fernando and Queen Isabella, who funded his expeditions. On his return, he stopped in Lisbon to tell the King Dom João II of his success. The King tried to claim the land as Portuguese under the Treaty of Alcáçovas with the argument that it fell south of the latitude of the Canary Islands. A new treaty was drawn up and signed in Tordesillas in June 1494 to override the old one. From now on, land would be divided by a longitude vertically drawn 370º west of the Cape Verde Islands.
Vasco da Gama
Shortly after the Treaty of Tordesillas, plans were set in motion to send an expedition to India. Vasco da Gama was chosen as commander of the fleet. They set out from Lisbon on 8th July 1497 and landed in Calicut the following May. No alliance was struck with the Arab traders, who strongly objected to the appearance of the Portuguese on the scene. Vasco da Gama and his men left for home just three months later. One of the ships was lost en route and half the crew died. Nevertheless he was welcomed back with open arms and a lot of pomp and ceremony, as the importance of his discovery was recognised by all. Back in Spain, the Catholic Kings blamed Columbus for the loss of India. If the new treaty had not been signed, this territory would have become part of the Spanish empire. He was taken into custody and the gifts previously bestowed on him were taken back.
Henry the Navigator and the Age of Discovery
One of Filippa’s children was the Infante Dom Henrique, Henry (1394-1460). Like all the Portuguese monarchy, he was catholic and well aware of the continuing threat of Islam. From an early age, Henry wanted to find the perhaps-mythical Prester John, supposedly a Christian King rumoured to have a large kingdom somewhere in Africa. Henry and his brothers persuaded their father to attack Ceuta, up until then a Moorish stronghold. The attack was successful and Henry was appointed Governor of Ceuta. He joined the Order of Christ (previously known as the Knights Templar) and as a result was able to fund his expeditions to uncharted lands with a view to exploiting them and converting the indigenous peoples to Christianity. He was also keen to find a trade route to the Indies that avoided the Muslim countries.
During his lifetime, Porto Santo, Madeira, Sierra Leone and the Azores were all “discovered” and claimed by the Portuguese. However not all the expeditions ran smoothly. Henry sent 15 successive fleets southwards down the west coast of Africa but none of them managed to get past Cape Bojador, which is south of the Canary Islands. Common belief was that the sea was not deep enough there and that no ship would be able to return. Also, being so far south, they thought that the sun would burn so hot that nothing could live there. Gil Eannes was the first explorer to overcome his fear and to prove that it wasn’t the end of the world – Henry would not let him return until he had passed the cape.
Henry contributed so much to the field of discovery that it earned him the title of “Henry the Navigator” even though he probably never travelled any further than the north coast of Africa. In fact, he was probably one of the first great “armchair travellers.”
Nevertheless, it was thanks to Henry and his discoveries that Portugal became a world power in the 15th century, with colonies in India, Africa and South America.
The Inquisition
When the Catholic Kings expelled the last Jews from Spain in 1492, many of them travelled to Portugal where, for considerable sums of money, they were granted temporary residence. It is possible that up to 100,000 Jews came over at this time. Portugal soon came under pressure from its Spanish neighbour to forbid the entrance of any more. Dom Manuel I thus decreed that all Jewish children must be baptised and that once they accepted conversion they would not have their religion questioned for at least two decades. Whilst some chose to leave the country immediately, many decided to convert. In spite of the king’s promises there was a distinction made between “old” and “new” Christians and the converted Jews soon suffered persecution. In 1506, riots broke out in Lisbon and 100 Jews were killed by the crowds. The Inquisition arrived in Portugal in the 16th century, and the first autos-da-fé was held in Lisbon in 1540.
These became quite a common event in Lisbon and usually took place in Rossio Square.
Sebastianism
In 1557 Prince Sebastião inherited the throne from his deceased grandfather Dom João III. Having been raised amidst the fever of the inquisition, he saw himself as God’s own captain and decided to take the inquisition over to Morocco in an attempt to convert the Muslims. The government opposed his plan, so Sebastião surrounded himself with ministers who would back him. In 1578, 18,000 men set off to Alcácer-Quibir where they were met by the Moroccan king and 40,000 of his men. The Portuguese were soon defeated, half their men were taken prisoner and Sebastião himself was killed, along with 8,000 men – mostly members of the Portuguese aristocracy.
Although Dom Sebastião had died in the battle, rumours soon surfaced that he had actually escaped. Over the next fifty years, several imposters presented themselves at the Portuguese court with the aim of stealing the throne in his name. This became known as “Sebastianism.” Through Portuguese immigrants, it even travelled as far as Brazil, where Sebastião became a Godlike figure who would bring justice to the poor and hungry.
When Sebastião’s successor, Cardinal Henrique, died in 1580, Philip II of Spain, Sebastião’s uncle, saw his opportunity to seize the country and unite Iberia. Portugal put up little resistance as the battle in Morocco had drained the royal coffers completely.
Domínio Filipino
Portugal was under Spanish rule for the next 60 years under Philip II, III and IV. During this time, the relationship between Portugal and England was put under increasing strain. Firstly, there was great rivalry between the Portuguese and English sailors. English pirates were continually on the look out for Spanish galleons to plunder. Secondly, the two countries were divided on religious grounds. Philip II called for the reinstatement of Mary Stuart to the throne, to replace her staunchly protestant sister, Elizabeth. When Mary Stuart was executed, Philip decided to attack England with the hope of adding it to his empire. In 1588, Philip’s Invincible Armada set off with a huge fleet that included thirty-one Portuguese vessels. The Armada was famously defeated. This only served to increase Portuguese bad feeling towards the Spanish.
Spanish rule not only damaged Portugal financially, it also left the people humiliated. Count Olivares (adviser to Philip IV) wanted to introduce a policy of centralization, which infuriated the Spanish provinces and Portugal alike. The final straw came when the Portuguese forces were enlisted to crush a rebellion in Cataluña. In 1640, the throne was seized back by Portugal, however it took a further 18 years for Spain to recognise Portuguese independence. The Spanish were driven out of Lisbon and the Duke of Bragança was reluctantly crowned King João IV. Now that Spain was considered the enemy, Portugal was anxious to gain allies. The alliance between England and Portugal was rekindled with the marriage of Charles II to João’s daughter, Catherine of Bragança. The Methuen treaty was signed with England in 1703 to promote trade between the two countries. The treaty had disastrous effects on Portuguese trade, as it forced them to import a lot of goods that they themselves produced. The Portuguese woollen industry was ruined as a result.
Marquês de Pombal
In 1750, Dom José I came to power. He himself had no interest in affairs of state, preferring to concentrate on his hedonistic lifestyle. He handed most of the decision-making over to his Prime Minister, the Marquês de Pombal. The rebuilding of Lisbon after the earthquake has always been considered his greatest achievement.
The massive earthquake (immortalised in Voltaire’s “Candide”) struck Lisbon on 1st November 1755. Most of the city was demolished. An estimated 5,000 people died in the initial impact with a possible total death count of 40,000 as a result of the subsequent floods, fires and famine.
The Marquês de Pombal took action straight away. He set up temporary hospitals and ensured that food was brought into the city from the surrounding countryside. Work began on a new city plan. The downtown area known as “Baixa” was most affected. The new city would divide this area into a grid of long avenues. Originally it was decided that the buildings should be two storeys only. However land was very valuable in the city centre so a new wooden structure was specially designed to support five storeys. Many of these buildings can still be seen in Rua Augusta and the surrounding area, although some have since collapsed and been replaced.
For his efforts, Pombal was promoted to Chief Minister. In the years which followed, Pombal ruled as a virtual dictator, ruthlessly eliminating anybody who might object to his plans. He tried to weaken the church by expelling the Jesuits, accusing them of attempting to assassinate the king in 1758. Many powerful noble families were arrested under the same pretext. He founded royal schools (until this time all schools and universities had been run by the Jesuits). He abolished slavery in Portugal, and ended the inquisition by eliminating the distinction between new and old Christians. Most importantly, perhaps, he reformed both trade and industry and is now considered responsible for modernising Portugal.
We can only wonder what further changes would have been made if it hadn’t been for the accession of Dona Maria I to the throne in 1777. Queen Maria was extremely devout and quickly re-established links with the church. Pombal was put on trial and later banished.
Candide
The philosopher Pangloss, Candide and the brutal sailor are the sole survivors of a shipwreck in Lisbon harbour. They manage to swim ashore…
“Scarcely had they reached the town… when they felt the earth tremble beneath them. The sea boiled up in the harbour and broke the ships which lay at anchor. Whirlwinds of flame and ashes covered the streets and squares. Houses came crashing down. Roofs toppled on to their foundations, and the foundations crumbled. Thirty thousand men, women and children were crushed to death under the ruins.
The sailor chuckled:
‘There’ll be something worth picking up here,’ he remarked with an oath […]
‘The day of judgement has come,’ cried Candide.”
From “Candide” (ch.5), Voltaire
The Peninsular War
Having heard of the terror during the Revolution in France, and of the beheading of Louis XVI, the Portuguese monarchy not only feared invasion, they also feared for their lives. For this reason, they signed a mutual assistance pact with both Spain and Britain, in 1793. Shortly after, Napoleon invaded the Basque country and 6,000 Portuguese men joined with the Spanish army to fight the French. The French army proved the more powerful, however, and the Spanish/Portuguese were forced to retreat. When the French army arrived in Madrid, the Spanish grew scared and signed a secret pact with the French without telling the Portuguese.
In 1801, France and Spain sent Portugal an ultimatum; stop trade with Britain or face invasion. The Anglo-Portuguese alliance was far too important to their economy, so they refused. Napoleon’s forces marched on Lisbon. The royal family left for Brazil, and stayed there for the next 14 years. The British came to Portugal’s aid in 1808 when the British troops led by Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) joined with the Portuguese army. The French were finally driven back in 1811.
The Salazar Regime
The beginning of the 20th century saw great political upheaval in Portugal. Support for the Republic was growing, and as a result there was increasing pressure to cede control of the colonies in Africa. The Portuguese wanted to link their territories from west (Angola) to east (Mozambique), while the British wished to maintain a clear route from Cairo down to the Cape of Good Hope. Great Britain issued an ultimatum and Portugal was forced to back down.
The loss of vast amounts of African land was humiliating for the Portuguese who already resented being behind the rest of Europe both socially and commercially. Riots broke out in Lisbon as discontent with the monarchic government grew. In 1907 a new dictatorial government was put in place by the king, Carlos I. This only angered the people more. On 1st February 1908, a group of activists assassinated Dom Carlos along with his son and heir Dom Luis Filipe. The youngest son, Dom Manuel, escaped the bullets and became Dom Manuel II. Manuel’s reign was only to last thirty months. Seven successive governments were appointed during his reign in an attempt to appease the nation, but it was too late. On 3rd October 1910, the republican revolution began. Dom Manuel, from then on known as “Manuel the unfortunate,” was forced to abdicate and fled to England, never to return to his native Portugal.
Reforms were quickly introduced to modernise the country. New railways and roads were constructed, streetcars were introduced to Lisbon and telegraph wires were set up. However, political instability was set to continue. Between 1910 and 1926, Portugal had eight presidents and 45 changes of government. None of these governments managed successfully to tackle Portugal’s insolvency.
The start of World War I was to signal the downfall of democracy. Portugal was dragged in to the war in 1916 when they were forced by Britain to seize 70 German ships that were anchored in Lisbon harbour. In 1917, a military dictatorship was set up under the leadership of Sidónio Pais. The following year, however, he was killed at Rossio railway station in Lisbon. Revolts broke out all over the country and there were terrorist bombings in Lisbon. Several other politicians were assassinated before the government resigned in 1926.
In 1928, António de Oliveira Salazar was appointed finance minister by the new president, General Óscar Carmona. Within a year, he had managed to balance the budget and in 1932 he became prime minister. A “New State” had been created. The regime – nationalist, Catholic and repressive – would last nearly 50 years. The Policia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado (PIDE), a secret police force, was introduced to deal with any opposition through imprisonment or torture. Under Salazar, strikes were banned and national syndicates were established to keep the workers in order. Censorship was also introduced and propaganda boasted of the genius of the man who had turned Portugal’s economy around.
Salazar signed a friendship pact with the dictator General Franco in Spain, and both countries remained neutral during World War II. The 33-foot statue of Christ, which can be seen opposite Lisbon on the south bank of the Tagus, was erected to give thanks for the sons of Portugal being kept out of the war.
The 36-year rule of the Portuguese dictator did reduce the country’s debt, however. But despite a notable increase in industry in the 1950’s and 1960’s, many people were forced to emigrate and it is estimated that there are still 3 million Portuguese working abroad. Salazar’s regime came to an end in 1968, when he retired due to ill health. The New State was to continue under the leadership of Marcelo Caetano for the next six years.
On 25th April 1974, the song “Grãndola, Vila Morena” was broadcast on the radio. The song is about a town where people govern themselves and was sung by a famous political singer José Afonso. This was a pre-arranged signal to the MFA (Armed Forces Movement) to launch a military coup. The old regime was toppled with little resistance.
The first free elections took place in April 1975. But it would take 16 successive governments, and 12 years, for Portugal to achieve any kind of stability.
In 1986, Portugal joined the European Community and since that time, the country’s industry, economy and infrastructure has been transformed.
Arts – Literature
Luís Vaz de Camões (1524-1580) is widely considered to be Portugal’s greatest Golden Age writer. His masterpiece, the epic poem “Os Lusiadas,” records the achievements of his contemporaries in uncovering the new world, in particular the story of Vasco da Gama’s sea voyage to India. The poem is full of national pride as it describes an era when Portugal held one of the most powerful empires in the world. Camões was only recognised as a genius posthumously, and when he died he was buried in a pauper’s grave. A more permanent reminder of his talent can be seen on the Discovery monument in Lisbon where he is featured along with Henry the Navigator and Vasco da Gama.
José Saramago (b. 1922) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998. Although both a poet and an author from an early age, he was one of many writers whose genius was suppressed during the Salazar dictatorship. Since then, he has gained recognition for works such as “Memorial do Convento,” a novel that deals with the conflict between the Monarchy and the Church in the 18th century, and “The Stone Raft,” in which Iberia breaks off from Europe and floats into the Atlantic.
Fine Art
Portuguese art came into its own in the late 15th century, largely as a result of the success of the expeditions of discovery, which had made Portugal a very powerful nation. The colonial expansion in the 1500’s saw a wave of Dutch paintings enter Iberia, and a new Portuguese/Flemish style was born. Characteristic of this style is the use of realism and highly defined backgrounds. Grão Vasco and Jorge Afonso, court painter to Dom Manuel I, best exemplify this period.
Josefa de Obidos (1630-1684) was one of the first successful female artists in Portugal. She studied at an Augustine convent, though she never took her vows. She is most known for her still lifes and religious paintings, and for being chaste and religious until her death.
Modernism
In his short life, Amadeo de Souza Cardoso (1887-1918) managed to become one of the most highly regarded artists of the 20th century. His father wanted him to study architecture, but by the time he was 18 he had enrolled himself in a Fine Art school. He studied in Paris for eight years, becoming a student of Cézanne, but soon abandoned naturalism for cubism and expressionism. He returned to Portugal at the outbreak of World War One and died shortly after of Spanish Flu, at 31 years old.
Almada Negreiros (1893-1970) is considered by many as the father of Portugal’s Modern Art movement. Although he was actually from Cape Verde, most of his works can now be seen in Portugal. Two of his paintings have pride of place in A Brasileira Café in the Chiado district of Lisbon.
Manueline Architecture
Manueline is the name given to a particular Portuguese style of late Gothic architecture that was fashionable from the late 15th century until the mid 1600’s. It was named after the king, Dom Manuel I (1495-1521), although the style continued to be used long after his death.
Dom Manuel’s reign coincided with Vasco da Gama’s discovery of a sea route to India. The success of these expeditions opened a new world to the Portuguese, and the architects of the time tried to reflect this in their work. The result was a flamboyant style where nautical images, such as ropes and anchors, are represented alongside the cross of the Order of Christ (the military order that funded the majority of the early expeditions). Most examples of this style can be seen in Lisbon, for example Mosteiro dos Jerónimos (Jeronimos Monastery) and Torre de Belém. Parts of the National Palace in Sintra were added in Manueline style during Dom Manuel’s reign.
Lifestyle – Cuisine
While Portuguese cooking has never quite achieved international status, the country-style cooking using simple ingredients nearly always proves delicious.
A couple of dishes to try…
On nearly all menus in the big cities you can find the very wholesome Caldo Verde – a cabbage and potato based soup that is traditionally served with a slice of sausage floating on top. Another popular soup is Açorda á Alentejana. The main ingredient here is bread flavoured with garlic, poached egg and fresh coriander.
As the Portuguese have always been a seafaring nation fish and seafood feature heavily in the cuisine. Carne de Porco á Alentejana is an unusual stew that mixes the Portuguese love for heavy meats (here marinated in wine) with clams.
Any discussion about food, however, cannot leave out the nation’s love affair with salt cod – Bacalhau. Ask a Portuguese person about Bacalhau and they will tell you that there are 365 ways of cooking the fish – one for every day of the year. It has been popular since the 1500’s when cod was first fished in the waters around Newfoundland. Sailors placed the fish in salt, to preserve it during the journey back home. The ability to cure fish in this way proved popular both at home and at sea. It became a staple part of the Portuguese diet and became known as “o fiel amigo” (the faithful friend).
While strong coffee is a way of life in Portugal, Chá (tea) is also popular. It was introduced by Catherine de Bragança, wife of Charles II. Nowadays, you can go for a cup of tea and sample some of the many sticky sweet desserts on offer in a Casa de Chá.
Portugal has particularly good wines, of which the Vinho Verde, or green wine, stands out. This wine comes from Northern Portugal and is drunk very young. It is available in white, red and rosé. The most internationally recognised Portuguese wine, however, is still Mateus Rosé.
Port
One of the most important Portuguese exports is still the Vinho do Porto. This fortified wine is traditionally made from grapes grown in the upper Douro Valley. It was the British who first saw the potential of the wine, known back in the 17th century as “Red Portugal.” In fact, it was the addition of brandy to the wine in order to make it travel better, and producing a sweeter product, that made it the Port we recognise today. While it is the French who now consume the most standard Port, the English and Americans lead the way in vintage Port drinking. Nowadays there are five types of Port: Ruby, sweet tawny, late bottled vintage, vintage and dry white. There are over 20 Port-tasting cellars lining the river Douro in Oporto. Alternatively, the Solar do Vinho do Porto has an office in Lisbon’s Bairro Alto.
Fado
The word Fado derives from Latin; its literal translation is “fate.” However, this word carries a much deeper meaning; it expresses the Portuguese character and soul.
Fado emerged in the late 1700’s, but people are divided as to its origins. Possible theories are that it dates back to the songs of the troubadours or songs sung by African slaves. Other theories suggest that it developed through Moorish music, thus linking it to Spanish flamenco, or songs from Brazilian Mestizos.
Fado originated as a dance, not unlike belly dancing, in the docks and cabaret bars of Lisbon. It was not until the singing, poetry and instruments were introduced that it moved upmarket. Nowadays Fado consists of singing accompanied by guitars.
The Fado you can hear today comes from Coimbra or Lisbon. Men traditionally sing the Coimbra Fado as the subject is usually a woman’s beauty. During the end of term festivities at the University of Coimbra many students can be heard singing these particular Fado around the campus and in the local bars.
Many Fado enthusiasts claim, however, that the Lisbon style is more authentic. This usually deals with life, love, fate and saudade.
Saudade
Saudade is a truly Portuguese word that cannot be accurately translated. It is the expression of longing or the pain one feels if homesick. It is synonymous with Fado and many people think that both saudade and fado developed during the age of discovery on the ships carrying Portuguese sailors miles from home for months or years on end.
Amália Rodrigues (1920-1999) is universally recognised as the greatest fadista ever. During her career she sang to audiences all over the world.
Festivals
In a country where Catholicism is still very much the dominant religion, it is not surprising that most festivals and holidays revolve around the romarias (religious pilgrimages) or religious holidays.
February–March: Carnaval is celebrated nationwide in the week leading up to Lent. The Carnival is made up mainly of parades, with a lot of singing and dancing.
March–April: Holy week is also celebrated throughout the country, though the best fiestas are held in Braga, once the religious capital of Portugal. The most famous procession is Senhor Ecce Homo, which takes place on Maundy Thursday. The procession is led by barefoot penitents in black hoods carrying lit torches.
May: Fátima holds two pilgrimages a year to the holy site where the Virgin Mary was said to have appeared to three children in 1917. The first takes place over the 13th and 14th of May, to coincide with the first apparition, the second takes place mid October when she was seen for the last time.
June: Festa de Santo António. Despite the fact that Lisbon’s patron saint is St. Vincent, the locals prefer St. Anthony. Born in Lisbon in 1195, St. Anthony spent most of his life in Italy and France. He is fondly remembered, however, for the many miracles attributed to him. He is renowned for his ability to arrange marriages, and many women still pray to him to help find a husband. During the festivities, women can be seen around Lisbon, selling pots of basil with a love poem. Tradition holds that as the basil grows, so does the buyer’s love.
The fiesta itself takes place on the 12th and 13th of June, in the Alfama, Mouraria and Bairro Alto quarters of Lisbon. The celebrations take the form of an all-night street party with dancing, singing, fireworks and lots of alcohol, freshly baked bread and the traditional grilled sardines. St. Anthony is carried through the streets, covered with flowers, and the crowds sing “Te Deum” and other hymns.
Festa de São João. Porto holds the best parties to celebrate St. John’s feast day. People party for a week leading up to the day itself, the 24th of June. The eve of St. John’s is celebrated by a large street party, where people hit each other over the head with large plastic hammers or leeks. In Lisbon, the same day sees the arrival of gypsies from all over the country. Their celebration takes place in the Parque Eduardo VII, where they have a barbecue of roast pork and kid and sing and dance flamenco. The evening rounds off with the election of “Miss Gypsy” and “Gypsy Couple” of the year.
Science
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) – The prince patronised cosmographical research and many of the early expeditions of discovery. Although further expeditions were funded with revenue from the slave and gold trade, he died heavily in debt.
Fernão de Magalhães (Ferdinand Magellan) (1480-1521) – After being rejected by the Portuguese court, he became a navigator in Spain. In 1519 he embarked on his voyage to circumnavigate the globe. He was killed in the Philippines, although one ship led by the Basque Juan Sebastián Elcano did survive, returning to Spain in 1522.
António Caetano Egas Moniz (1874-1955) – Won a Nobel prize in 1949 for his pioneering work in neurosurgery.