Normandy comprises five départements: Eure and Seine Maritime (Upper Normandy), Calvados, Manche and Orne (Lower Normandy).
The name comes from North-men, referring to the Vikings who settled in this area in the third and fourth centuries. Thus the Norman conquest of Britain was in fact carried out largely by descendants of the Vikings moving back north. This offers plenty of scope for Viking anecdotes, including how they traveled across Europe, reached Byzantium (which they called Miklagaard, the centre of the earth), and even sailed to America.
Normandy is a wealthy and beautiful region, filled with orchards and rich agricultural land. It is well known for its dairy products, including Neufchaâtel, Pont l’Evêque and Camembert cheese, and for its fruit, especially apples, which are used to make cider and the powerful calvados. This is often served locally in the middle of a meal to enliven the appetite, and is known as “le trou.” Normandy is a rather complacent area, known for its concentration of lawyers. Madame Bovary, Flaubert’s dissection of bourgeois mythology, is set in the area around Rouen, the chief town of Normandy, popularly known as “the town with the hundred bell-towers.”
The type of architecture known in England as Norman (and elsewhere as Romanesque) was brought over at the time of the Norman conquest. Many 11th-century structures survive in Normandy, notably the Abbeys of Caen and the Cathedral of Bayeux. Domestic architecture features half-timbered buildings with steep roofs. Originally thatched, many have now been restored using tiles, but look out for the traditional feature of planting a row of irises along the ridge.
Brittany
Brittany is a considerable contrast to Normandy. Although you will touch on it only in Dinard, it provides rich material for anecdote. The boundary between Brittany and Normandy is the river Couesnon, which flows into the sea near Mont Saint Michel. As the shallow bay has silted up, the river has changed its course and now flows to the west of the Abbey, which is therefore claimed by the Normans, though it once belonged to Brittany.
Brittany is a Celtic country, like Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man and Galicia. It has its own language and culture. Celtic regions often possess names that signify the end of the land: Land’s End in England, Finisterre in Brittany, Finisterra in Galicia. Life has been hard in these areas, but the traditions of folklore and music are strong.
The Celts settled Brittany in the 6th century BC and called their country Armor (country of the sea). After four centuries of Roman domination, the region was re-colonized by Celts from Britain fleeing the Angles and Saxons. This specific Celtic heritage accounts for the distinct cultural and religious identity of the region. Brittany is traditionally fiercely Catholic. Religious leaders often became local saints, while superstition and Celtic legend blended with the Church.
Breton mythology is rich. Many myths relate to the sea. Ankou, or death, appears to those about to die, sailing his boat just offshore. The lost city of Ys, like Atlantis, sank beneath the sea after a princess fell in love with the Devil. Debussy’s “La Cathédrale Engloutie” was inspired by this legend. Traditional ceremonies such as the pardon, a blessing of the sea at the start of the fishing season, remain important. The most famous takes place at Sainte Anne d’Auray.
Traditional Breton music resembles Irish and Scottish styles, using bagpipes (including the high-pitched biniou), the loud bombarde, and the Celtic harp.
French governments historically discouraged the Breton identity. A notorious sign once found in schools read: “Il est interdit de cracher par terre et de parler breton” (It is forbidden to spit on the floor and to speak Breton). Today, Breton identity survives through music, language courses, and cultural pride.
The Mont St Michel
You can see the Mont from far away, and it always makes a striking first impression. The rock rises 500 feet above the sands, topped by an abbey that seems almost miraculous in its construction. For 800 years the Mont was one of the most important centers of Christianity in Europe. Pilgrims traveled to it from great distances, navigating forests, primitive roads, robbers, wild animals, quicksand and the famously swift tides, which rush in faster than a galloping horse.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, extraordinary children’s pilgrimages took place. In 1333, 30,000 children traveled unaccompanied to the Mont. Attempts by parents to prevent them were believed to provoke divine punishment.
In the 8th century the Mont stood in a forest. A Roman road crossed the area. The rock, then called Mont Tombe, was already a hermit’s retreat. Legend says the hermits’ provisions were delivered by a donkey, which, after being eaten by a wolf, was replaced by the wolf in a miraculous turn of fate.
A dramatic geological change in 709 reshaped the coastline. A dyke collapsed and the sea rushed 30 miles inland, isolating the Mont forever.
Legend attributes the founding of the Abbey to three visions experienced by Aubert, Archbishop of Avranches, in which the Archangel Michael appeared. When Aubert hesitated, the Archangel pressed a finger into his skull to convince him. Aubert’s skull, complete with hole, can still be seen in Avranches. He built a sanctuary on the site indicated by a tethered bull, and the Mont became known as Mont St Michel.
Work on the Abbey continued from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Over time, the original sanctuary grew into the monumental complex visitors see today. The most dramatic feature is the Gothic section known as the “Merveille,” built from the 13th to 15th centuries directly atop the rock.
Visitors move through the church (Romanesque nave, Gothic chancel), the cloisters (appearing almost suspended in air), the refectory with its beautiful light, the Guests’ Hall with its immense fireplace, and the scriptorium. The lowest level was for poor pilgrims and provisions, reflecting the three medieval estates: clergy, nobility and commoners.
Over the centuries the Abbey declined. Kings appointed abbots as political favors, and the Abbey became partly a prison. Napoleon converted it into a full-time prison until its closure in 1863. During World War II, the Germans used it as a headquarters.
Today, visitors often struggle through crowds, just as medieval pilgrims did. In 1318, thirteen pilgrims were crushed to death trying to reach the sanctuary.
Dinard
The drive to Dinard from Mont St Michel crosses into Brittany. You cross the barrage over the river Rance, a major hydroelectric project powered by the tides. To the right is St Malo, the “Corsair City,” home of privateers who preyed on English shipping. It was the birthplace of Jacques Cartier, discoverer of Canada, and of Chateaubriand, the Romantic writer. The Falkland Islands were originally settled from St Malo and are called the Îles Malouines in French.
An hour in St Malo is always worthwhile.
A History of Holiday Making in France
Sea bathing and seaside resorts are surprisingly recent. Before the mid-18th century, spas were the centers of elite leisure.
Chronology
- 1756 Dr. Russell publishes a treatise on the benefits of sea water, internally and externally.
- 1840 Thomas Cook organizes the first package tour.
- 1890s Development of major seaside resorts such as Nice, Biarritz and Deauville.
- 1936 The Front Populaire grants workers two weeks of paid holiday (now five).
The first bathers used horse-drawn bathing machines for modesty. Resorts developed casinos, racetracks and sports like tennis and golf. After 1936, seaside holidays became a symbol of social equality. Workers set out on bicycles, camped in fields and crowded beaches. Youth hostels and “colonies de vacances” for children were created. Jacques Tati’s “Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot” captures the spirit of mid-century French holidays.
Bayeux
The Bayeux Tapestry commemorates the Norman invasion of England in 1066. It marks the end of England’s Anglo-Saxon history and the beginning of deep ties with France. The tapestry, commissioned for the Cathedral of Bayeux and exhibited in 1077, is a spectacular piece of propaganda for William’s claim to the English throne. It also offers a priceless depiction of medieval life.
William’s Background
William, son of Duke Robert of Normandy, had to fight for survival from a young age. By the 1040s he had asserted control over the Norman nobles. His marriage to Matilda began violently (he famously dragged her by her hair until she agreed), but the scandal centered on their being cousins, not on his behavior. They were excommunicated until they agreed to build hospitals and the great abbeys of Caen.
Succession Conflict
Edward the Confessor, childless and Norman-friendly, is said to have promised William the throne. But the English nobles preferred Harold Godwinson, brother of the Queen. Harold was crowned the day after Edward’s death.
William claimed Harold had sworn an oath to support him. Harold may have been coerced. The oath was sworn over relics concealed in a chest, making it binding in the eyes of medieval religion.
The Invasion
William built a fleet of 700 ships and crossed the Channel. An omen helped morale: Halley’s Comet. William landed in September 1066, built a prefabricated fort and waited for Harold, who had just fought off an attack in the north and marched south exhausted.
The Battle of Hastings
The armies met on October 14th. Harold held the high ground early on. But when English troops charged downhill, they became exposed. William’s archers shot upward, and an arrow struck Harold in the eye. Once Harold fell, the English line collapsed.
William marched to London and was crowned in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day.
The Tapestry Itself
The tapestry is 70 meters long and 50 cm high, made of eight stitched panels with wool embroidery. It shows Harold rescuing a man from quicksand at Mont St Michel, the oath over relics, Halley’s comet, invasion preparations, and the battle scene where Harold is struck.
It narrowly survived the French Revolution. Napoleon nearly used it as a banner to inspire his army before a planned invasion of England.
Caen
Caen grew in importance under William, who built a castle there in 1060. The town was devastated during the 1944 Battle for Caen. Civilians sheltered in the great abbeys, which the Allies spared thanks to Resistance intelligence. Thousands took refuge in quarries south of town.
The ruined castle dominates the old town. The Abbaye aux Hommes, founded by William, is now the Town Hall. William was buried here; his funeral was marked by drama including a coffin that broke open due to poor fit. The Abbaye aux Dames, founded by Matilda, holds her tomb. Neither abbey is open to the public.
Normandy in World War II
Normandy had seen no large-scale warfare since the 16th century. World War II changed that dramatically.
Brief Chronology
- 1939 Germany invades Poland. Britain and France declare war.
- 1940 Germany overruns Western Europe. Paris falls. Vichy regime created.
- 1941 Germany invades the USSR. Pearl Harbor.
- 1942 Holocaust escalates.
- 1944 June 6: D Day. August: Liberation of Paris.
- 1945 Germany surrenders in May. Japan in August.
The D-Day Beaches
The Normandy landings offer a moment to connect students with very recent history. Many Allied soldiers who stormed the beaches were not much older than the students today. For many, this was their first time in France. Their arrival brought chewing gum, Coca-Cola, American cigarettes and the first American cultural influences many Europeans had ever seen.
Planning Overlord
Operation Overlord required a vast amphibious and airborne assault. The Pas-de-Calais seemed the obvious target, so elaborate deception was used to mislead Hitler. Bombing campaigns targeted infrastructure across northern Europe. Fake airfields were built. German intelligence was flooded with misinformation.
Normandy was chosen for its wide beaches, relatively weak defenses and proximity to British ports. The Seine and Loire bridges were bombed to prevent German reinforcements.
The landing zones were divided into five beaches:
- Sword (British)
- Juno (Canadian)
- Gold (British)
- Omaha (US)
- Utah (US)
Preparation
Thousands of US troops gathered in England for months. Engineers constructed landing craft and the prefabricated Mulberry harbor, towed across the Channel.
Bad weather forced D Day to move from June 5 to June 6. A coded radio message using lines of a poem by Verlaine alerted the Resistance.
June 6
Airborne divisions dropped inland. The navy transported 280,000 men in rough seas. At 6:30 am the first American troops landed. Utah went relatively smoothly. Omaha was nearly catastrophic. The beach was a deadly semicircle under German guns. Nearly all tanks were lost. By midday withdrawal seemed possible, but sheer numbers eventually carried the position.
By evening the Allies had a 12-mile beachhead. It took another year to defeat Germany.
The US Military Cemetery at St Laurent
Overlooking Omaha Beach, the American Cemetery covers 172 acres and contains 9,386 graves, plus 307 unknowns. Another 14,000 soldiers were repatriated later.
A semicircular colonnade contains three battle maps and the names of 1,557 Missing in Action. At the cliff’s edge an orientation table shows the coastline.
Nearby Pointe du Hoc is worth visiting. Rangers scaled the 100-foot cliffs under fire, capturing German positions that controlled both Omaha and Utah beaches.
World War II — A French Perspective
Americans and British often view WWII primarily as the triumph of democracy over tyranny. The French experienced a more ambiguous reality.
The Vichy Regime
After France fell in 1940, Marshal Pétain established a collaborationist regime in Vichy. It admired German methods, enacted antisemitic laws and discouraged dissent. Its motto replaced “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” with “Famille, Travail, Patrie.”
For many frightened citizens, Pétain offered stability.
The Resistance
General Charles de Gaulle, from London, declared that France had lost a battle, not a war. Early Resistance numbers were tiny. Communists joined only after Germany attacked the USSR in 1941. Jean Moulin unified Resistance groups before being murdered by Klaus Barbie.
Resistance members sabotaged railways and lines of communication ahead of D Day. After liberation, de Gaulle led the new French Republic.
Aftermath
The purge (l’épuration) punished collaborators. Complex moral ambiguities remain part of French memory.
Roosevelt distrusted de Gaulle and even planned for France to be governed as an occupied territory after liberation. Only de Gaulle’s threat to withdraw Resistance support forced Roosevelt to allow a French government after liberation.