Overview
It was once said that there would soon be only five kings in Europe – the King of England, the king of spades, the king of diamonds, the king of clubs and the king of hearts ….. Although this dire prophecy has not yet come true, it gives an idea of the enduring nature of the British monarchy. With over a thousand years of a just about continuous line there have been many great characters, stories, myths and downright historical distortions. A lot of people take most of their knowledge of the rulers of England from two sources – Shakespeare and Hollywood, with all the artistic license that both enjoyed, resulting in some rather vague images. The following is intended to be a framework on which to build – add detail and stories as your group and itinerary need.
Early and Saxon Kings
After the withdrawal of the Romans in the early 5thC, England was no longer a single entity, rather the customary post-Roman patchwork of local rulers. Not until the Saxon era started around the 9thC can anyone be identified as a King of England, and even then their lands would only have been a small part of the present map. The mythical King Arthur with his court at Camelot, Sir Lancelot, Lady Guinevere, and his sword Excalibur fit somewhere in this misty early period. The French claim that Arthur was French, while the Welsh claim him as theirs, but whatever historical foundations there are for the legend would, if true, make him English.
The first (and probably only) Saxon king worthy of note is Alfred the Great, who united large portions of England to drive back the Viking invasions and establish an uneasy truce with them. The most popular story about Alfred recounts how he was once out on reconnaissance, alone and incognito. As night fell, he took shelter in a peasant lady’s house. She offered him shelter in return for his watching her cakes baking. Alfred became so wrapped up in his thoughts of the struggles with the Danes that he did not notice the cakes burning. The peasant lady returned, furious, and beat him soundly. It was not until the next morning when his retinue caught up with him that she realized that she had beaten the king. His reply was that he deserved it, and that he would have to pay more attention to cakes and his kingdom in the future.
The line of Saxon kings continued through splendidly named but totally obscure people like Ethelred the Unready and Edwy the Fair, until the 11thC, when there was a brief sequence of Danish kings. Canute (reigned 1016-35) was the first and most notable. His power was believed so great that his courtiers flattered him that he could command the tide of the sea to roll back. He was very skeptical, but was talked into a demonstration. The result was that he is normally depicted on his throne with waves lapping unabated around his feet.
The Saxons returned to the throne with Edward the Confessor (reigned 1042 – 1066), the founder of Westminster Abbey. A very devout man, he was later sainted. Unfortunately, (this will become a recurring theme) at his death there was no clear successor. The story of Harold, who briefly claimed the throne, and William the Conqueror (r. 1066 – 87) is possibly more fitting for Normandy, but their dispute led to the Norman invasion in 1066. Harold died at the Battle of Hastings, probably not by the arrow in the eye that people think is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, and William went on to harshly unite England under Norman rule. He built castles (Tower of London, Windsor), commissioned the Domesday Book, which was basically an inventory of what he had conquered and which still exists in the British Museum, and introduced Norman ways and language to England.
William was succeeded by William Rufus (r 1087-1100), who was killed in a very suspicious hunting accident in the New Forest in Hampshire, then Henry I (r. 1100 – 1135) who died of a “surfeit of lampreys”, his favourite dinner, and Stephen of Boulogne (1135 – 1154) whose reign was really a period of near anarchy, as he was a weak and mainly absent king. At this point the line passed to an Anglo-French family, known as the Plantagenets, because of the sprig of heather they wore in their hats.
Henry II (r 1154 – 1189)
Ruled over England and large parts of France, known as Aquitaine. Henry was involved in the troubles with Thomas a Becket, his Archbishop of Canterbury, which resulted in Thomas’s martyrdom, Henry’s penance at Canterbury, and the subsequent pilgrimages there (cf Canterbury Tales). The dispute was mainly over the power of church courts to try members of the clergy, and the relationship between religion and the monarchy, which becomes another recurring theme. Henry also occupied part of Ireland, around Dublin, with the blessing of the English-born Pope, Adrian IV, thus starting the “Irish troubles” that would haunt history for the next 800 years. His wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, was a larger than life character. Previously married to the King of France, she resented Henry’s neglect (and his mistresses) and plotted against him frequently, resulting in long periods of exile and imprisonment.
Richard I, the Lionhearted (r. 1189 – 1199)
The most glaring example of the divergence of image and reality in English history. Hollywood would have us believe that he was Sean Connery, riding majestically out of the woods, returning heroically from the Crusades to set everything right in rotten England. In reality, he was probably one of England’s worst kings. He plotted with his mother (Eleanor of Aquitaine) against his father (Henry II) and his brothers; he spoke no English and probably spent less than a year in England. On the Crusades he spent more time with his enemy, Saladin, than with his supposed ally, the King of France. He had a penchant for being caught in bed with young boys, resulting in many penances. Even his capture by the Emperor and imprisonment in Durnstein in Austria was the result of his foolhardily ignoring advice and returning from the Crusades alone through hostile territory. During his absences from England, local barons and lords had free rein, leaving a big mess for his brother and successor.
John Lackland (r. 1199 – 1216)
Younger brother of Richard, son of Henry II, his name is a result of being cheated out of lands in France by his brothers and plotting mother. Most famous for being forced to affix the Royal Seal to the Magna Carta, John was, in fact, a reformer. Inheriting barons with big ideas about their own importance, brought about by his brother’s neglect, he had to agree to a lot of what had become common practice, and codified the idea of trial by jury and many other rights that form the basis of English (and by extension, American) law. He also established a nationwide bureaucracy and, in general, unified the country. His most important legacy, implied by the Magna Carta, was that the king was himself not above the law, a principle which prevented the English rulers from ever becoming the absolute monarchs seen elsewhere in Europe.
Henry III (r. 1216 – 1272)
Henry attempted to re-gain the lands that John had lost, and also attempted a conquest of Sicily, both of which failed. He had great ambition, but could not control the barons either. It was during his reign in 1258 that a very notable institution was founded – Parliament. Initially called as a meeting of barons by Simon de Montfort, it eventually evolved into a powerful, governing body, leading to clashes with the king. The relationship between the throne and Parliament (along with the relations with the church and succession) was to play a major role in shaping the future of the monarchy.
Edward I Longshanks (r. 1272 – 1307)
Known as “The Hammer of the Scots”, Edward was a fierce, tall (hence the name) warrior king. His aim was to unite Britain under one crown, by subduing Wales and Scotland. His conquest of Wales was most successful and still endures. He built magnificent castles there (Conwy, Carnarfon) and established his heir as Prince of Wales, a tradition which still continues today. He promised the Welsh that their Prince would be Welsh born and not an English speaker. He then presented his son, who had been born a few days before in Wales, and spoke no language at all! His efforts in Scotland fell short. After several successful and brutal campaigns, including those against William Wallace (“Braveheart” of the recent movie) his hold on Scotland was tenuous. He died on his way to the final campaign, leaving his son to confront Robert the Bruce. On his death bed he left instructions that should the Scots become too hard to handle, his bones should be disinterred and used to lead the English army against them.
Edward II (r. 1307 – 1327)
Not at all the man his fierce father was. On the military side, he managed to lose all the land gained in Scotland, culminating in the humiliating defeat by Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn in 1314 during a woefully mishandled campaign. His habit of dressing in women’s clothing was not well received by the powerful lords, nor was his infatuation with a French knight, Piers Gaveston. After several attempts Henry was finally overthrown by a rebellion led by his neglected wife, Queen Isabella, and her lover. He was captured and tortured to death at Berkeley Castle, in a way which “mocked his sexuality” and involved a red-hot poker, but did not leave any visible marks on his body. Exactly what was done is left to your imagination.
Edward III (r. 1327 – 1377)
Son of Edward II, he vowed to avenge his father’s murder. Isabella was sent to a nunnery and her lover, Mortimer, executed. Edward was able to work with the barons, and his reign saw a rise of chivalry. It was Edward who founded the Order of the Garter at Windsor, and gave the motto “Honi soit qui mal y pense” (see Windsor notes for details). He also launched a war with France to claim the throne there that was to become known as the Hundred Years War. His son, known as the Black Prince, was a great leader, involved in the victories of Crecy and Poitiers, but unfortunately died one year before his father and so never came to the throne. During Edward’s years on the throne, England was ravaged by the Black Death, a bubonic plague which killed almost one third of the population.
Richard II (r. 1377 – 1399)
Son of the Black Prince, Richard was crowned as a child. When he reached the age of 18 he tried to exert his powers, but during the waning years of his grandfather’s rule and his minority, power had once more shifted to the barons, particularly John of Gaunt, his uncle. The rest of his reign was marked by a continual power struggle between the eccentric and moody Richard, who deeply desired absolute power, and the barons who constantly sought to limit him. In spite of seizing lands, exiling his enemies and plotting, Richard was eventually overthrown by a rebellion led by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, son of John of Gaunt. Richard was forced to abdicate, then imprisoned (where he died, or was murdered) and Henry claimed the crown for himself, starting the rule of monarchs from the House of Lancaster.
Henry IV Bolingbroke (r. 1399 – 1413)
Under Henry’s reign the turmoil continued. He suffered very poor health and was almost forced to abdicate when power shifted to a group led by his son, Prince Hal. He was, however, a patron of the arts, sponsoring Geoffrey Chaucer, and encouraging musicians at the court.
Henry V (r. 1413 – 1422)
Depicted in his youth as a wastrel and juvenile delinquent by Shakespeare, Henry transformed himself into an inspiring king. He united the country behind him in a renewal of the wars with France. According to legend he rallied the English army with “Cry God for Harry, England and St. George!” and took them to a stunning victory over the French at Agincourt. He was recognized as successor to the King of France, but by a cruel twist of fate he died of dysentery two months before his French rival, thus diminishing (but not eliminating) the English claim to the French throne.
Henry VI (r. 1422 – 1461; briefly 1470-71)
Inheriting the crown from his father as an infant, Henry developed into a weak and withdrawn king. He spent a lot of time in religious pursuits, and suffered bouts of insanity. With this lack of leadership in England the French took back virtually all of the lands taken by Henry V and a civil war erupted. Edward III’s descendants had split into two “Houses” or families; the ruling House of Lancaster and the rival House of York. According to legend, the two sides chose roses as their emblems in the gardens of the Temple in London, white for York and red for Lancaster, thus giving the name to the War of the Roses. During one of Henry’s periods of insanity, his cousin, Richard, Duke of York, acted as regent, but was banished when Henry recovered. The Yorkists raised an army, but were defeated at Wakefield and St. Albans. Richard was killed in battle, but not his cause. Richard’s son, Edward, raised another army and defeated the Lancastrians at several battles before claiming the throne and becoming Edward IV.
Edward IV (r. 1461 – 1483)
Edward tried to bring a divided country together, by reforming royal finances, reorganizing the government and supporting trade. However, he made the mistake of alienating his main supporter from the early part of the War of the Roses, the Earl of Warwick, often known as the “Kingmaker”. Warwick drove Edward into exile and brought back the previously deposed Henry for a brief return to the throne. Edward rallied the Yorkists behind him and defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet and Tewkesbury. Warwick was killed and Henry put to death in the Tower of London. He died while his two sons were still very young, leaving the succession in jeopardy.
Edward V (r. 1483)
Coming to the throne at the age of 12, Edward was soon imprisoned in the Tower of London with his brother Richard, aged 10. Behind their imprisonment was their uncle, Richard. The boys died in very mysterious circumstances, almost certainly murdered, but no one has ever conclusively proven who was responsible for their death, Richard or the man who was to become Henry VII.
Richard III (r. 1483 – 1485)
A man who has never been able to shed the image put upon him by Shakespeare, who portrayed him as a wicked, deformed hunchback, hungry for power. There probably was some truth to this, but he seemed to have been loyal to his brother (Edward IV) and a capable administrator. More generous historians suggest that he feared that the 12 year old Edward V would be unfit to bring the country together, and so seized power himself in order to attempt to unite the country behind a strong leader. Whatever his motivation, he failed, only holding the throne for two years. He was defeated, amid much treason and double-dealing, at the Battle of Bosworth Field by an army lead by Henry Tudor. Richard was killed in battle, fighting furiously (his Shakespearean hunchback cannot have been too much of a handicap) and according to legend his crown rolled into a rose bush. Far too much neat symbolism for credibility! The victor, Henry, started a new line – the House of Tudor.
Henry VII (r. 1485 – 1509)
A rather uninspiring and remote figure, Henry set about rebuilding England after the destructive (and expensive) war. He married Elizabeth of York to help mend rivalries and eliminated anyone else with a claim to the throne. He encouraged trade, and by the end of his reign England was embarking on the path to becoming a wealthy nation. He arranged the betrothal of his eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, in order to cement relations between powerful (and also recently united) Spain and England. This betrothal lead to a lot of problems later on, as Arthur died before his father, bringing the second son, Henry, to the throne as Henry VIII.
Henry VIII (r. 1509 – 1547)
A larger than life character in every sense! When he came to the throne he was energetic, handsome and powerful. Six wives later, he died grossly overweight and self indulgent. Although his time on the throne was marked by such splendid events as the meeting with Francois Ier at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and a great growth of wealth and confidence in England, Henry is too often thought of in terms of his wives.
The link to Spain that had been forged by his late brother and Catherine was too good to waste, so Henry made her his wife. In order to do so, he needed special permission from the pope in Rome, as the Bible is somewhat contradictory about whether marrying one’s late brother’s wife is incestuous or not. Having received papal blessing, Henry and Catherine married, and they produced a daughter, Mary. Henry very much wanted a son, in order to ensure succession, but it was not to be. He started to flirt very actively with the ladies of the court, and decided that Catherine had to go. Arguing that the initial permission to marry was flawed, he asserted that he was being prevented from having a son and heir by the incestuous nature of the marriage. The pope was not nearly as impressed by this argument as he was by the fear of Catherine’s nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, the most powerful man in Europe. The pope avoided ruling as long as he could until Henry’s frustration drove him to desperate measures. For the purely practical reason of obtaining his annulment, he declared himself to be the head of the Church of England, and thus able to obtain what he wanted. It is important to note that the break was not over dogma, even though the Protestant Reformation was sweeping Europe. Henry was a devout Catholic, and his denunciation of Martin Luther earned him (and all subsequent English monarchs) the title “Defender of the Faith” – still represented by the initials “F.D.” on English coins. Not one to miss a profitable opportunity, Henry used the break with Rome to enhance his power, and also to seize the valuable lands owned by the Church, dissolving monasteries throughout England.
The marriage was annulled, Catherine retired (Henry continued to treat her well, and retain a fair amount of affection for his ex-wife) and Anne Boleyn became the new Queen, in a rather rushed fashion, as she was soon to give birth to another child. To Henry’s dismay it was another girl, named Elizabeth. Anne, who had flirted with Henry while he was still married, did not change her ways. She was also unable to produce the son and heir that Henry desired, and was eventually arrested, charged with witchcraft and adultery and executed in the Tower of London.
Henry was now ready for wife number three, Jane Seymour. A girl from the countryside, she was a complete contrast to her wild predecessor, and Henry was very fond of her. Most important of all (from Henry’s point of view) she presented him with a son, to be named Edward. Unfortunately, she died shortly after childbirth (a very common occurrence in those days), and so Henry was again left without a wife.
Having (he believed) ensured succession, Henry embarked on a political marriage again. It was arranged that he should marry Anne of Cleves, from a powerful Protestant family in Flanders. To make sure that she was sufficiently attractive to satisfy his ego, Henry sent the court painter, Hans Holbein, to paint her portrait. Holbein’s painting was acceptable to Henry, and Anne came to England. Upon seeing her in the flesh, Henry reportedly said “She pleaseth me not” and dubbed her the Mare of Flanders. He found himself incapable of entering into any sort of relationship with Anne, and promptly divorced her.
Catherine Howard was next in line, but did not last that long either. A lively, attractive lady, she too was unable to arouse Henry’s jaded passion. Charges of adultery were brought against her, possibly justified, and she followed Anne Boleyn to the Tower and execution. By this time, Henry was aging rapidly and chose his final wife for companionship during his last years, marrying Catherine Parr. Catherine looked after Henry until his dying day.
Most English school children remember the fate of Henry’s wives by the rhyme:
Divorced, beheaded, died
Divorced, beheaded, survived.
but this unfortunately does not recognize that the marriages to Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn and Anne of Cleves were actually annulled, a fact which was to come back to haunt England. At the time of Henry’s death, though, there were no problems. He was succeeded by his son.
Edward VI (r. 1547 – 1553)
Edward came to the throne at the age of 10, and was a weak child. Power slipped away to his maternal uncle, the Duke of Somerset. Edward was constantly ill, and died of tuberculosis at the age of 15. His death left a serious problem of a successor, as both of his half sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, were the result of annulled marriages, thus rendering them illegitimate. There was also a fear that Mary, having been brought up Catholic, would reverse the Protestant Reformation that had reached England. As a result, a figurehead sovereign was sought by the powerful Duke of Northumberland. He found Lady Jane Grey.
Lady Jane Grey
Poor Lady Jane lasted nine days on the throne. She was a descendant of Henry VIII’s sister, Protestant and easy to manipulate. Unfortunately for her it was apparent to all (including her) that her claim was very weak, even though Northumberland asserted that the dying Edward had designated her his heir. After being proclaimed Queen, she was taken to the Tower of London, for “her security”. She remained there while the more recognizable heir, Mary, gathered her forces. Noblemen quickly supported Mary, including Jane’s father, and Jane was doomed. Northumberland’s plan had failed, and he too was imprisoned in the Tower, as the throne passed to Mary I.
Mary I (r. 1553 – 1558)
Mary quickly set about earning her nickname – “Bloody Mary”. She had Lady Jane Grey executed, and tried to reverse the Protestant trend in England by martyring three leading figure of the Church of England; Bishops Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley, in an effort to restore Catholicism. She was very unpopular throughout England and constantly at odds with her advisors. She married Philip of Castile, who was to become King Philip II of Spain, even though he was a relative of hers through her mother, Catherine of Aragon. The marriage aroused such suspicion that when Philip arrived in England his carriage was pelted with dung while he rode from Dover to London. Fortunately for England, the austere Philip took little interest in Mary, and the marriage was unproductive. Mary died unpopular and unfulfilled, with the crown passing to her half sister Elizabeth I.
Elizabeth I (r. 1558 – 1603)
Ruler over one of England’s finest eras, Elizabeth needs little introduction. She never thought that she would come to the throne, as Mary had her imprisoned in the Tower of London for a year. She was a strong willed woman, and held the country together with her personality. She reversed Mary’s attempts to make England a Catholic country and the Protestant faith became firmly established. She never married, but there were many rumours of lovers, including the Earl of Essex, who she eventually had executed. Despite this, she was known as the “Virgin Queen”, with the American colony of Virginia being named in her honour. The colonization of the Americas, by such characters as Sir Walter Raleigh, was one of the jewels in her crown. Another was the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Dispatched by Philip II in an attempt to regain England for Catholicism (and himself – as the late Mary’s husband he felt he had quite a strong claim), it was defeated by a far smaller English fleet and very fortunate (for the English) storms. It was also during Elizabeth’s time on the throne that Shakespeare flourished. One of the more difficult periods of Elizabeth’s reign was the relationship between her and her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary’s story of intrigue, murder, and bizarre marriages came to an end when, after having sought Elizabeth’s protection in England, she was first placed under house arrest and finally tried and executed. Elizabeth signed her death warrant, but later claimed that she had been tricked into doing so. Sadly for England, it is rather hard for a virgin Queen to produce a successor, so when Elizabeth died, the House of Tudor also came to an end and England had to find a new royal line. The new King came from Scotland – son of the sad Mary Queen of Scots, founding the House of Stuart.
James I of England, James VI of Scotland (r. 1603 – 1625)
Known as “the wisest fool in Christendom”, James had been brought up by Protestant Scottish nobles while his mother Mary was in exile in England. Coming south to London to be crowned, he was startled by the wealth he saw. His reign is marked by a deterioration of relations between King and Parliament. He harboured some ideas of absolute monarchy, and sowed seeds that would flourish in the time of his successor. Although he had been brought up Protestant, there were still many in England who thought that Catholicism could return, and one plot to blow up the King and Parliament was narrowly foiled on November 5th, with the capture, torture and execution of Guy Fawkes, an event still celebrated in England with bonfires and fireworks. One of Elizabeth’s heroes, Sir Walter Raleigh met a similar fate under James, executed for treason after a long imprisonment in the Tower of London. One positive legacy that James left was a new translation of the Bible, which for centuries would remain as the cornerstone of the Church of England. James was succeeded by his son.
Charles I (r. 1625 – 1649)
The tension between King and Parliament during his father’s reign came to a head in Charles’s time. Believing in the Divine Right of Kings, Charles desired to rule alone, without Parliament. He took direct control of taxation, and for a period dissolved Parliament. However, even though the country ran quite well without Parliament, he was forced to recall it to help raise taxes to suppress a revolt in Scotland. The recalled Parliament was made of much firmer stuff than its predecessors, and when Charles attempted to dissolve it, it refused, leading to an open civil war between the supporters of the King (known as the Cavaliers) and the Parlimentarians (the Roundheads). As in any civil war, families were divided and the country ripped apart. For six years, from the battles of Edgehill, Marston Moor, to the final defeat of the Roundheads at Naseby the two sides fought each other throughout the country. Charles was never able to take back London, and was only to return to the capital to face his trial. The charge was treason, and, in spite of his refusal to recognize the court or to enter a plea, Charles was found guilty, and publicly executed. The Parliamentarians declared a Commonwealth, and England was ruled by first by a Council of State, and then Oliver Cromwell.
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Realm (1653 – 1658)
Cromwell had emerged as the greatest of the Parliamentarian generals, and played a leading role in forming the “New Model Army” which eventually defeated the King. Taking power, he was blunt and even demanded that his official portrait depict him realistically, “warts and all”. Seeing that Parliament itself was not capable of ruling, Cromwell became somewhat presidential. There was talk of proclaiming him to be King, but he resisted it, knowing that it would have been violently opposed by the army. His period was marked with a severe Puritan austerity, which never captured the hearts of the English people. As he was dying, he was pressured to name his son as successor (which he did), but he realized that trouble would ensue.
Richard Cromwell (1658 – 1659)
Not at all the strong leader his father was, it soon was apparent that the monarchy would have to be restored, and Richard soon gave way to the son of the executed king, with the Restoration of the House of Stuart.
Charles II (r. 1660 – 1685)
Starting in Scotland, where his family power base was, Charles worked his way back to the throne that his father had lost. He was a handsome, lively man and his reign is normally styled as a somewhat self-indulgent reversal of the Puritanical ethic that had gone before. He himself admitted to fathering 14 illegitimate children, although not one legal heir. According to legend, he was once seen picking flowers for his favourite mistress, Nell Gwynne, in what is now Green Park. The Queen, in her rage, ordered all the flowers in the park ripped up, hence the tradition that Green Park is only green! Various events that occurred during his reign were interpreted as a result of his less than moral ways, such as the plague which once again swept England and the Great Fire of London. His lack of legal heirs, however, lead to another problematic succession, as the closest heir to the throne was a Catholic.
James II (r. 1685 – 1688)
An arrogant and ardent Catholic, James soon became very unpopular. He re-opened conflicts with Parliament and tried to encourage the spread of his religion in what had become a Protestant country. The deciding point of his reign came when his Queen gave birth to a son, who would provide a clear successor. The idea of a continuing Catholic monarchy was simply too much for most of England to accept. James was bloodlessly deposed in the “Glorious Revolution”, forced into exile, and replaced by the nearest Protestant claimant to the throne, Mary and her husband, William of Orange.
William III and Mary II, joint monarchs (r. 1689 – 1702, Mary d. 1694)
To ensure that the monarchy would never again be tempted towards the absolute, the throne was offered to Mary with certain conditions. Hers was to be a joint monarchy, with her fiercely Protestant Dutch husband. Also, it was made very clear from the start that they would rule only with the consent of Parliament, and the throne of England was transformed into the Constitutional Monarchy that continues to this day, under which the powers of the monarch are severely limited. Mary was a very popular Queen, as she cared deeply for the English people. William, however, concerned himself more with the struggles of his native Holland against Louis XIV of France and never gained strong support. He ruled alone after Mary’s death, until he passed the throne to Anne.
Anne (1702 – 1714)
Queen Anne lead a difficult life. She became pregnant no fewer than 17 times in 16 years, but all of her children died before she did. She also faced the threat of “the King over the water”, her exiled half brother James. Although Parliament had decreed that the throne could never pass to a Catholic, James enjoyed support, especially in Scotland. In an attempt to reduce the risk, the crowns of England and Scotland were united in the Act of Union. From the time of James I, the Scots had accepted the King of England as also being the King of Scotland, but the Act created the United Kingdom, supposedly indivisible. Additionally, England became more militarily active on continental Europe, to show its power to those who would see James restored, particularly Louis XIV. The defeat of the French at Blenheim did as much to ensure that Parliament would get its way in choosing Anne’s successor as any piece of legislation ever could.
When exhausted Anne finally succumbed, Parliament again had to import a suitable monarch, this time turning to Germany, founding the House of Hanover.
George I (r. 1714 – 1727)
George seemed the ideal monarch to Parliament – he spoke no English and could easily be manipulated. He (or rather Parliament) withstood a brief challenge from the ever hopeful James, and George was secured on the throne. He was never comfortable in England, and spent as much time as possible in his native Germany, leaving Parliament happy in its role as the true ruler. He was followed by his son.
George II (r. 1727 – 1760)
Like his father, George never fully adjusted to England. His wife, Caroline, was a strong woman and thought by many to be the true power behind the throne. Parliament was lead by Horace Walpole, who became the first Prime Minister and between him and Caroline, England was ruled very effectively. The Georgian era saw the rise of elegant cities, such as Bath, and a rebuilding of London. With the problematic aspects of monarchy eliminated, and the King reduced to a figurehead, England enjoyed a period of great prosperity. The Jacobite threat was finally eliminated when a mainly Scottish rebellion, lead by Bonnie Prince Charlie, was brutally put down at the battle of Culloden. Victories in Europe and colonies in America supported England as a growing international power, none of which could be attributed to the limited King. George was succeeded by his son, who became the notorious George III.
George III (r. 1760 – 1820)
History is still in the process of reviewing the rule of George III, from raving madman to misunderstood and lost soul. The first of the Hanoverians actually born in Britain, he was a true patriot, saying “I glory in the name of Briton.” Not intellectually endowed, he was often known as “Farmer George”, because most of his interests lay in simple pursuits like farming. His periods of insanity, and the brutal “medical” treatment he received, rendered him incapable of ruling and his son ruled as Regent. His reign is marked by the loss of the American colonies, which, given his lack of control, was probably much more the result of mishandling by Parliament than his madness. Conversely, he gets no credit at all for England’s defeat of Napoleon, or the rise of England as an industrial power during the Industrial Revolution, both of which occurred during his time on the throne. On his death, the Prince Regent became George IV.
George IV (r. 1820 – 1830)
While he was Prince Regent, George indulged himself to the utmost. At first a dashing figure, he degenerated into a bloated figure of fun. A good example of his self indulgence is the Royal Pavilion in Brighton – a fantasy of oriental influences. He was a patron of the arts, and acquired collections that became the nucleus of the National Gallery and sponsored many architectural gems that remain part of Britain’s heritage. His extravagance made him unpopular with common people, as he ran up huge gambling and entertaining debts. Towards the end of his life he became a sad, delusioned recluse, and started to show tendencies towards his family’s insanity, believing that he had commanded troops at the Battle of Waterloo and had won races riding his own horses. He was succeeded by his brother, who became William IV.
William IV (r. 1830 – 1837)
Nicknamed “Silly Billy” because of his blunt tactlessness, William in fact took his duties far more seriously than his brother. According to legend, while his brother was dying, he spent hours practicing the royal “William R” signature, and, on coming to the throne, attached it to no fewer than 48,000 papers. He averted a crisis in Parliament caused by the (very necessary) Reform Bill and restored the image of the monarchy after the excesses of George IV. As he only came to the throne at the age of 64, his rule was short, and he was succeeded by the person who was to become Britain’s longest reigning monarch.
Victoria (r. 1837 – 1901)
The story is often told that when Victoria came to the throne at the age of 18, her first official action was to insist to her mother that she have her own bedroom – she had previously slept in her mother’s room. Remarkably self assured, she impressed everyone with her compassion and calm. At her coronation many things went wrong, including an aging peer collapsing as he came to pay official homage. Victoria rose from the throne to assist the poor old gentleman back to his feet. Her reign was to be one of the most spectacular periods of Britain’s history, with Victoria ruling over an Empire “on which the sun never set”, while Britain became the world’s foremost industrial and military power. Victoria’s private life, however, was more chequered. She married, and dearly loved, a German prince, Albert, and together they produced many children, most of whom were married into royal families throughout Europe. Albert was fascinated by science and technology and sponsored the Great Exhibition which showcased Britain’s many contributions in this field. The proceeds were used to build many of the intellectual institutions of Kensington.
When Albert died, Victoria went into mourning for 40 years, and often referred to herself as a “poor widow”. She spent a lot of her later years in Scotland, and had a long, and rather strange relationship with a brusque Scot, John Brown. Her diamond jubilee in 1897 was widely celebrated, as the public poured out their affection for the figurehead that had made them powerful. A special review of the Royal Navy at Spithead featured 50 battleships and the fleet took an entire day to steam past the reviewing point. The Victorian era left many great legacies, in architecture (many of the public buildings in London, including the Houses of Parliament), the arts (Dickens, the Bronte sisters), science (Darwin) and discovery (Livingstone in Africa). Throughout the rest of Europe it was a time of turmoil, revolution and great change, but for once the monarch provided stability in Britain and the nation was able to make changes in an orderly fashion. Victoria saw Britain into the 20th century, dying in 1901 to leave the throne to her son, already over 60, who became Edward VII.
Edward VII (r. 1901 – 1910)
After waiting for so long to come to the throne, Edward was determined to enjoy every moment, and his coronation was one of the most lavish seen. His mother had kept him away from affairs of state, so he indulged himself. His passions were shooting, horse racing, gambling and the country life, all of which endeared him to both the traditional aristocracy and the merging middle class. On coming to the throne he did apply himself to an extent to state duties, and many regard his personal style as being in part responsible for the “entente cordiale” between Britain and France that ended centuries of animosity, and he, better than many politicians, saw the problems emerging that would almost destroy Europe in the coming generations.
George V (r. 1910 – 1936)
George V saw himself a decent believer in “fair play” and his most outstanding feature was his neutrality and tolerance. When World War I broke out he set himself as an example to his people, abstaining from alcohol and changing his family name from the Germanic Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (inherited from Prince Albert) to the far more English “Windsor”, saying “I may be uninspiring, but I’ll be damned if I’m an alien!” He reached out to the nation, starting the tradition of Christmas broadcast messages and was genuinely surprised by his popularity in a very rapidly changing Britain. His death brought a constitutional crisis, that almost ended the long line of Kings and Queens.
Edward VIII (r. 1936)
Edward was on the throne for 325 days, and was never formally crowned, as he was forced into abdication, choosing “the woman I love” over the crown. A dashing and informal figure, he had asked to be allowed to fight in the trenches in W.W.I, but was restricted to a staff position. He had a modern attitude that was at odds with the traditional “Establishment”, but which, ironically, would probably have been the best to see Britain through the coming difficulties. His main problem (according to the Establishment) was his love for Mrs. Wallis Simpson, a twice divorced lady from Baltimore, MD. With the role of the monarch as the head of the Church of England, the thought of a King marrying a divorced lady was unthinkable. Forced to choose between love and crown, Edward abdicated and went into exile abroad as the Duke of Windsor, passing the throne to his brother.
George VI (r. 1936 – 1952)
The shy and retiring George never expected to be King, and was very unprepared for what was to come, saying “I never wanted this to happen. I’m only a naval officer, it’s the only thing I know about.” Within three years of coming to the throne, Britain was once again at war. George and his very strong wife, Elizabeth (the present Queen Mother) refused to be evacuated from Buckingham Palace, even at the height of the bombing of London, and insisted on accepting the rationing that was imposed on Britain. During the war, the King remained a beloved figurehead, while Winston Churchill took the mantle of leadership. With George’s sudden death in 1952, the throne passed to his eldest daughter, the present Queen.
Elizabeth II (r. 1952 – )
Learning of her father’s death while up a tree in Africa, Elizabeth’s ascension to the throne was greeted with great optimism. Britain had emerged victorious from W.W.II and there was talk of a New Elizabethan Era. Unfortunately, Elizabeth’s inheritance was a country reeling from two costly wars and socially divided, and an Empire clamouring for independence. Leaving the politicians to try to sort out the mess, Elizabeth changed the role of the monarchy further. Still a ceremonial figurehead, and still personally popular, the Queen stays out of day to day politics, apart from regular and very private meetings with the Prime Minister. She also attempts to remain apart from the many scandals that haunt her family.